P 141 
!>py 1 



H|MpB,,,. t Kv : ' 

sfll ■ 

KB H 



" ' . 



■ ■H 
I 







NTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY 



A SYLLABUS 




BY 



WALTER JOHN GIFFORD 
HARRISONBURG, VA. 



Introduction to Psychology 



A SYLLABUS 



BY 

WALTER JOHN GIFFORD 

DEAN AND HEAD OF DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 

STATE NORMAL SCHOOL 

HARRISONBURG, VA. 



1922 
THE GARRISON PRESS, 

HARRISONBURG, VA. 



IN N 



V 

^ 



COPYRIGHT, 1922, 
By WALTER JOHN GIFFORD 



©CI. A66 1 g . I 

; 






STATEMENT TO THE STUDENT 



This course unlike a good many courses stresses thinking rather 
than memorization of facts. This latter should follow logically and is 
provided for in reviews and by a certain amount of paralleling of the 
first term's work with that of the second. Problem-solving or answering 
questions has long been supposed to be a good method of study, but it 
is infrequently incorporated into textbooks. Therefore, after ten years 
of trying out various texts, the instructor has devised these questions 
based on experience and most of them used at some time, hoping the 
course will be easier, more practicable and more tangible, and better 
rounded out than otherwise it would be. 

Method of Daily Preparation. Ordinarily the method of preparation may 
well include (1) review of the previous lesson, perhaps writing a 
brief summary or making an outline, (2) reading the introductory 
statement of the instructor, and then (3) a reading of the questions. 
You would then take up the reading or readings and seek to answer 
the questions or work the exercises. It is an excellent plan to do some 
reviewing, (recalling or relearning), before the class meets for its 
recitation. 

Assignments Uneven. You will find the assignments uneven as it is not 
possible to find topics of equal value or difficulty for each lesson, or 
if they could be so weighted for one person they would not be such 
for another. Consequently, expect to spend more time on one lesson 
than on another. The instructor does not expect you to spend all your 
time on this course, but hopes the time will run about as in other 
courses. The time suggested in the catalog and elsewhere, namely, 
two hours of preparation, is intended as a mean or average for the class. 

Ability to Answer Questions. This will vary much and you may find 
questions that prove an absolute stumbling-block, others you are 
not certain about, and others where you misinterpret the matter and 
will have to be set right in class. Don't feel that it is your right to 
come to class unprepared, but do feel that it is the business of the 
recitation to clear up difficulties. 

Readings. As students vary greatly in the ability to read during a given 
length of time, no absolute requirement in most cases is laid down. 
No one could read all the references made with each lesson and there 
is some danger of reading too much as well as of reading too little. The 
instructor will usually discuss the readings on each topic in advance. 

Note-taking. It is probably desirable to take some notes on what you 
read. Most students take too many notes; some, too few. With these 
exercises to guide you very likely most of the references can be read 
with attention only to parts of the chapter or assignment, and the 
notes might be taken briefly under each exercise. At any rate this 
method is worth trying and if you do not like it later, and feel that 
you would like to give it up, talk freely with the instructor. 

The right hand page has been left blank because it was thought 
that it would be more convenient for you in taking notes either in the 
library or in class. Of course the one page will not always suffice. 
You can easily unstaple the syllabus and place in your note book. It 
is well to protect the eyelets with Denison rings. 



INTRODUCTION 



The syllabus outlined here is the result of ten years experience in 
teaching psychology and educational psychology in colleges and normal 
schools. The author has found it usually a rather difficult subject, 
especially for students just out of high school. He fell into the method 
early, of assigning questions and gradually has turned from the fact ques- 
tion as the major type to the so-called thought provoking question. For 
the method, perhaps indebtedness ought to be acknowledged to Professor 
W. H. Kilpatrick with his classes in philosophy of education (see his 
recently published syllabus) and to the Outlines of Economics, by Marshall, 
Wright and Field, published by the University of Chicago Press. 

Such a plan finds its corollary in the use of questions following each 
chapter in texts and will in time perhaps be carried out by interspersing 
these questions in a sort of outline within the body of the text. It is 
printed on. note-paper for the student and therefore can be easily changed 
from year to year as new researches of especial importance or new ideas 
about the desirability of the arrangement or the content come to the 
teacher's mind. 

For the content and the point of view, indebtedness is especially 
acknowledged to Professors Thorndike and Woodworth and to Professor 
Strong, a pupil of both, whose book, Introductory Psychology for Teachers, 
lu.o been the most hopeful of all experiments in psychologizing psychoid 
There is a great deal of borrowing without reference because the ideas of 
these authors who are from time to time referred to, have given us notions 
of such value that they have become incorporated into our thinking, just 
as for example, every student and teacher of psychology unwittingly 
utilizes constantly without recognition, the findings of that renowned 
pioneer of modern psychology. William James. 

This outline was written for the specific use of students just out of 
high school, and is planned for one quarter, meeting three times a week, 
the quarter being the first one of the first year of the course. The second 
quarter is given over to a study of educational psychology very much 
along the line of Professor Strong's text, stressing individual differences, 
the learning process and the use of standard achievement and intelligence 
tests for diagnostic purposes. The third quarter is. in some respects, a 
continued application of the subject-matter of the first two. as it is given 
to problems of classroom management and teaching. There are four 
sections of the class, due to size and nature of work; those electing to 
teach in the primary grades, the grammar grades, the junior hi Ji school, 
and to teach the special subject of home economics, this being a Smith- 
Hughes training school. Consequently, the bias given the course with 
various groups should and will duffer considerably. 

The syllabus is cast in the printed rather than the mimeographed 
form because of repealed requests for copies as the result of the fact that 
at the 1922 session of the Department of Superintendence of tin National 
Education Association, a Committee on Standards and Surveys of the 
Association of Presidents of Stale Teachers Colleges announced that 
it was the prize syllabus of those ottered for this Committee's considera- 
tion. It is the intention of the author to make revisions from time t<> 
time and he is hopeful that his friends in the profession will freely (Her 
siii*i*estions and criticisms. 



EXPERIMENT REPORTS: GENERAL DIRECTIONS 



Note. It is important to learn to report accurately the results and con- 
clusions drawn from a study of anything experimentally whether it 
be chemistry, biology or psychology. The following outline is brief 
and should be followed closely unless the instructor suggests that 
it is not necessary to do so in the case of a given experiment. 



Experiment Reports 

1. Statement of the Problem. This may be and preferably should be 
in the form of a question which you hope to answer, altho it will not 
always be easy or worth while to put it in this form. 

2. Apparatus and Procedure. If the experiment is at all complex, it is 
well to divide your statement concerning each of these matters, say 
by having different paragraphs. If you vary in any respect from the 
method laid down by the instructor, note it here. You will ordinarily 
not be censured for such variation but your conclusions are certain 
to be different and as a good experimenter you want to be accurate 
in every detail. 

3. Results. The results will include all tabulations, charts, and facts that 
grow out of your experimentation. Sometimes this will require a 
separate sheet, for example, of graph paper; this should be placed 
here and not at the end or beginning of your report. 

4. Interpretation, Introspections, Applications, Conclusions. In this part 
of the report it is important that you discuss freely the results, using 
your former reading and class discussion where they apply, and that 
you note any laws, or applications of a practical nature, or any 
problems that are not answered but are of interest and apparent value. 
This is the part of the report that requires thought and care ordinarily. 



General Directions 

Not always but frequently two people will work together, E the 
experimenter or one in charge of the experiment and O the observer 
upon whom the experiment is performed and who observes or intro- 
spects. Usually E and O alternate; after the first performance of the 
experiment they change places and perform it a second time. 

Each time before handing in your report make sure of the following 
items for the sake of uniformity and ease of looking over the papers: 
(1) that the date and hour and name of the writer-up of the experiment 
are placed in the upper righthand corner of the first sheet, (2) that the 
name of the E and O appear in the lefthand corner and (3) that all the 
sheets of the report be securely fastened together. 



[ 3 ] 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 



Note. Only the books frequently used are listed here and they are 
ordinarily referred to with the name of the author only. In case of 
two texts listed here by the same author, the first letters of the main 
words of the titles are used in addition to the name of the author. 

Angell, Psychology 

Averill, Psychology for Normal Schools 
Bagley, The Educative Process 
Bolton, The Principles of Education 
Cameron, Psychology and the School 
Colvin, The Learning Process 
\ Colvin and Bagley, Human Behavior 
Dewey, How we Think 
Dewey, Moral Principles in Education 
Freeman, How Children Learn 
James, Brief Course in Psychology 
Norsworthy and Whitley, Psychology of Childhood 
Pillsbury, Essentials of Psychology 
Pyle, Science of Human Nature 
Strayer and Norsworthy, How to Teach 
Strong, Introductory Psychology for Teachers 
Thorndike, Elements of Psychology 
Thorndike, Original Nature of Man 
Thorndike, Principles of Teaching 
Titchener, Textbook in Psychology 
Woodworth, Psychology 



[ 4 ] 



CH. I. INTRODUCTION 

Lesson 1. What Psychology is 

Our first problem naturally is to find out something about this study, 
which, because it it new and different from anything you have studied 
before, may seem difficult at first, but which, because it concerns you 
and your friends, and your future pupils, ought to prove a most interest- 
ing and fascinating study. Do not read any of the references until you 
read thru the questions. Probably the most interesting reference today 
is that to Professor Strong's, Introductory Psychology for Teachers. If 
you read that, note how he illustrates various kinds or branches of the 
subject of psychology from stories, newspaper accounts and similar 
material such as you are reading every day. 

References: Strong, ch. 1; or Pyle, ch. 1; or Pillsbury, ch. 1; or any 
other good general text in psychology if these are not available. Question 
1 below, is adapted from Thorndike, E. P., p. 2. 

1. Which of the following terms refer to mental facts? To physical 
facts? Which may refer to either? How? Gas, tree, sympathy, 
money, desire, wish, dog, stone, dreams, headache, inventiveness, 
pound, taste, intelligence, heavy, sour, oxygen, fatigue, load, pleasure, 
observe, remember, image, idea, brain. 

To what kind of facts do the following refer? 
Mob, race, fashion, custom, family, government. 

2. What is suggested to your mind about the relationship of the three 
sciences listed below, i. e. how are they dependent upon each other: 
physiology (and biology), psychology, and sociology? Is psycho] 
likely to utilize, or to be more or less dependent upon the sciences of 
astronomy, chemistry, physics, mathematics? 

3. From a reading of Strong, pp. 5-12, what do you notice regarding the 
variety of problems of psychology? What arc the kinds of psychology 
you can find in reading this chapter, e. g. animal psychology, adolescent 
psychology, psychology of advertising, etc.? Can you suggest other 
branches of the subject? 

4. From different texts you will note the tendency of psychologists to 
define psychology either as the science of consciousness or of behavior. 
What does each mean? Which of these points of view is likely to be 
more profitable for education? 

5. What advantage if any, do you see in the statement that it is the 
science or study of mental life. i. e., can you harmonise these two 
points of view in that way? 



[ 6 ] 



Lesson 2. Methods Used in Psychology 

In the first lesson you found out something about the study of 
psychology; therefore, before you begin the new lesson, write a paragraph 
of perhaps 100 to 150 words at the end of the class-notes of the last les- 
son, summing up that lesson, briefly and simply, under the question, 
"What is Psychology?" Just as that lesson dealt largely with the prob- 
lem of the subject-matter or content of psychology, so this one will deal 
with the methods used. This is very important because, while a member 
of this course at least, you are to be a young psychologist, and as far as 
you are able with so little experience and training, you will want to re- 
discover many of the things discovered by trained students of the subject 
and, by application of what they have found, to be able to improve your 
methods of work and study. One aim of your work might be that "sug- 
gested by Professor Seashore, "Not psychology, but to psychologize." 
Do not read or study question 6 below. 

References: Consult the early chapters, usually the first or second 
of several texts in psychology under the heading "methods" to find their 
point of view concerning the methods of the subject; Pillsbury, Pyle, 
Angell, Titchener, Cameron, Averill, Woodworth, etc. 

1. Make a list or table of the methods discussed by the different authors 
you read, giving credit to each for that which he mentions, and noting 
agreement and disagreement among them. What seems to be the 
fundamental difference between psychology and other natural sciences 
in the matter of method, e. g. chemistry? 

2. Titchener says "the method of psychology is observation." How do 
you tie up with this the methods of introspection and experiment? 

3. To which type of method is the "behavior" psychologist, who is likely 
to work with animals, biased? The "consciousness" psvchologist .' 
Why? 

4. Whatever methods are being used, there arc certain precautions re- 
guarding the tabulation of results and their use that must be borne 
in mind. What are these? 

5. Why is it that two or more witnesses who have seen the same event 
may without perjury, give very different \i rsions on the witness stand? 
Does this have anything to do with method in psychologj 

6. Class Experiments illustrative of psychological method. 

a. The instructor will display advertisements (not more than five 
nor less than 3) and students will arrange them in an order of merit. 
Why do you place them in this order? That is. what different effect 
does the best one have upon you? 

b. At a given signal "Go." the instructor will ask you to begin m a kin g 
short vertical marks upon a paper, for a period of one-half minute. 
How many do you make in comparison with other members of the 
class? What helping or hindering ideas went thru your mind ? 

c. The instructor will ask 15 01 20 members to stand in a circle so 
that all are facing clockwise. At a signal "Go" one member will touch 
the one in front, etc.. until the person who began is touched. The 
instructor will keep the time and the average gives what may he called 
the simple reaction-time for the average member of the group. 

d. Which of the above experiments illustrates the method of intro- 
spection? Of experiment? Do they form a sort of scries as regards 
methods used? 

[ 7 ] 



Lesson 3. The Major Topics or Problems in Psychology 

Until very recently, psychologists, as indeed many other people today, 
thought of the mind as a set of more or less independent functions or 
faculties, such as memory, reasoning, perception, and so forth. Today 
we are apt to liken it to a well organized telephone system, with its cen- 
tral, its connecting wires, and its receivers and transmitters. In other 
words we try to think of it as a unitary machine or organism, now learn- 
in, now thinking, now remembering, in rapid succession or indeed per- 
haps simultaneously. While a flower is no longer a flower when you have 
taken it to pieces for study in the botany class, and the mind is no longer 
mind when you analyze it into the functions that make it up, nevertheless 
we shall have to take up these interrelated and closely interwoven func- 
tions separately to come to know something of them in detail. Today we 
shall make a brief acquaintance with a large number of them in prepara- 
tion for the more detailed study of the rest of the term. 

References: Consult tables of contents or indexes of any one or 
more of the psychology texts noted in previous lessons, except perhaps 
Strong. But as usual read the exercises below, first. 

1. In the following paragraph is a hypothetical experience which you 
might have had some time, in which a number of these major 
psychological functions of the mind are found. The words used to 
indicate them are in bold face, and where they are not used in the text 
are listed in parentheses following the phrase or clause of description. 

Suppose during a vacation, you are going down town and suddenly 
as you walk along recalling experiences of the day before (memory), 
a puff of smoke and a shrill noise (sensation), which you immediately 
interpret as indications of an incoming train (perception), arrest your 
attention. You quicken your step at the thought that perhaps some 
of your friends who arc away at school may be returning on this train, 
and decide (will) to go to the depot in the earnest hope (emotion) that 
you may meet them. You arrive in time and your curiosity (instinct) 
is satisfied, but there is no friend. You then turn your steps up the 
street as you have been accustomed to do many previous times (habit) 
and are soon at your original destination. 

After you have thought over these experiences many of which follow 
one another in more rapid succession than they can be described and 
have tried to define them, turn to a text which you have used before 
preferably, and find a psychologist's definition. Couch each in 
simple terms as possible and give credit to the author in your notes. 
Perhaps the following order would be best: instinct, emotion, sensa- 
tion, perception, attention, memory, thought, will or volition, habit. 
The following form of definition or description might be used. — 
"Instincts are " 

2. Similarly try to break up or analyze some one or more of the follow- 
ing or kindred experiences: (a) sitting in the classroom when some- 
one is reciting or the teacher is lecturing, (b) at the breakfast table, or 
(c) at the study desk with perhaps your history text open before you. 
noting which of the mental functions listed in 1 above, are to be found, 
and what others. Write up your experience, beginning somewhat as 
follows: "While sitting at my disk at half past eight o'clock 



[ S ] 



Lesson 4. Situation, Bond and Response 

Before we turn to the detailed study of these large problems in 
psychology, it seems important to get a point of view that has recently 
come into psychology, and that will undoubtedly help you to keep in 
mind this unitary nature of mental life as we work along with the different 
mental processes. That point of view is that all mental life or conscious- 
ness or behavior, may be thought of as being comprised of situations or 
stimuli (singular, stimulus), and bonds or connections, and responses or 
reactions. We shall use the letters S, B and R, to denote these and try 
today to get a preliminary view of these terms and their meanings. This 
lesson should be of special profit to you if you apply the idea to what you 
do in study or recitation or at any time during your waking life or indeed 
in your dream life, that is that always you are reacting to situations pre- 
sented and that you are reacting in one way and not another because cer- 
tain bonds have been inherited or formed. 

References: Freeman, ch. 1, or Strong, chs. 2-4 (to be sketched only). 
Unfortunately, there are few good references on this subject but that 
may make it all the more interesting if you will follow thru the problems 
suggested below. Most recent texts treat these topics briefly. 

1. If some one should make a thrust at your face, you would wink. 
Similarly, if when you have your knees crossed, some one should 
strike the upper knee, the foot would fly up. What is S and what is 
B in each case? Do you also get a notion of what the B is like? 

2. When you are called upon in this class (S) and make answer (R), 
what do you notice about S compared with S in 1 above? Name in 
detail in this case all the things that go to make up the S. Is the R 
similarly complex? Are most S's and R's complex or simple? 

3. In the following illustrations, note wherever possible, what, if any. 
of the mental functions discussed in Lesson 3 are present, e. ii. if one 
unexpectedly comes upon an old friend (perception), one is first struek 
with surprise (emotion) and thin reaches out the hand in greeting 
(habit) : 

Situations Responses 

Rumbling noise heard Person thinks "thunder" 

Pupils sees word "s-c-h-o-o-1" Pupil thinks "school" 

Teacher calls pupil's name Pupil goes to board 

Person thinks of mail Person goes to postofiice box 

Person sees approaching auto Person steps back in fear 

4. The connections between S's and R's are called B's. What is the dif- 
ference between the bonds in 1 and in 'A above, i. e. which are learned 
and which did not need to he learned? Try now to define the terms 
S, R, and B. 

5. What is learning, and what is teaching, in terms of these three words 
or concepts? What, in these terms also, is the purpose of the el 5S- 
room recitation? 

6. Now look back to your summary of Lesson 1 and see how you might 
profitably supplement it or change it to incorporate this new idea of 
mental life. Can you take a given period of your life, say five minutes 
of the classroom period, and analyze it into the S's and R's that go to 
make it up? (See Lesson 5, question 2). 

[ 9 ] 



Lesson 5. Review 

As far as possible it will be important for you to proceed in this 
course according to the recognized laws and principles of psychology. 
Information to be usable must not only be learned but reviewed or re- 
learned. It is going to be a valuable thing for you at this time to see (1) 
how quickly and fully you recognize the points which you have taken 
up and learned in preceding lessons, (2) how difficult or easy these prin- 
ciples or facts now seem to you as compared with the first time you came 
upon them in your reading or class discussion, and (3) how well 
you have formed the habit of keeping your readings and other work 
up-to-date. If you have never tried the habit, it will be very much worth 
while to make an effort now to substitute for last-minute preparation of 
your psychology lesson, the practice of studying it immediately after your 
recitation (or as shortly after as you have time) . What has this sugges- 
tion to do with the matter of learning as making bonds? 

1. Make up an outline-digest of the material covered thus far in the 
course. It can follow fairly closely, the outline of the preceding les- 
sons and should not have too many main topics. The instructor will 
be of any help he can be in shaping this up after you come to class. 
By the term digest, is meant the idea that an outline, to be useful, can- 
not be a mere skeleton, but should include descriptive phrases and 
clauses, e. g., if you wanted to include the topic, "Two opposing views 
of psychology," you would not follow this simply with "(a) conscious- 
ness and (b) behavior," but rather with "(a) consciousness: the 
description of the contents of mind, its different processes, (b) be- 
havior: " 

2. As a supplement especially to lesson 4, and a review ( this word moans 
a new view), write to hand in, a list of 20 situations and their appro- 
priate responses, as in question 3, Lesson 4. It would be valuable if 
you would make a few of these apply to preceding lessons, e. g. "Hear 
the word situation — Think of psychology class." Or it would be 
excellent to select experiences out of your daily life, securing as much 
variety as time allows. 



[ 10 ] 



CH. II. PHYSICAL BASIS OF MENTAL LIFE 

Lesson 6. Relation of mind and body; nervous system, neurone, synapse 

The purpose of this and the next two lessons is to give you a working 
notion of the physical basis or background of your mental life. It may 
seem to you that it is really a study of physiology, but it is rather physiolo- 
gical psychology. Probably it could have been omitted or placed differ- 
ently in the course but the instructor's experience is that it proves help- 
ful to have this background early if it is not made too detailed or technical. 
Just as one is better able to understand the products of a country if one 
understands the physical conditions underlying those products, the nature 
of the soil, the rock formation, the direction and nature of the winds, 
so you will understand memory, perception, and thought better if you 
get a few accurate notions about the nervous system and its functioning. 

It will be valuable for you to begin at this time outlining your les- 
sons either before or after the recitation or both, and it may be very 
much worth while to continue making the brief paragraph summaries. 

References: While practically all elementary texts in psychology 
have chapters on the nervous system, it may be best for every one during 
these next three periods, to make use largely, of Strong, chs. 40, 41, Pills- 
bury, ch. 2, ch. 3, pp. 46-54, Thorndike, E. P. pp. 120-102, (excellent cuts). 
If you want a brief statement before you begin the longer discussion, see 
Cameron, ch. 2, or Averill, ch. 3. 

1. Can you imagine a body without a mind or a mind without a body? 
What is the relationship of the two? What evidence have we that 
the mind depends upon physical structures? 

2. What is that part of the body called which forms the physical basis 
of mind (consciousness, behavior)? What are the main parts.' What 
may be said to be its main functions? Explain this last in terms of 
S, R, B, if possible. 

3. What are the general physical characteristics of each of the nerve 
cells, or neurones? Be able to draw at least three different types and 
label the parts. 

4. How are functions of the nerve cells unlike and how like those of 
other cells? Into what three general classes are the neurones divided 
according to function, and where is each largely located? 

5. What is the nervous current? What are the important facts about it. 
its rate, its paths, etc.? 

6. What is the synapse? Describe and diagram it. Note in this connec- 
tion, the probable function of each part of the neurone. What is the 
relation of the synapse to the bond (B) ? 



[ 11 ] 



Lesson 7. The Three Levels of Action 

In the last lesson we saw how the central nervous system deter- 
mines mental life, how it is composed of simple elements ( the nerve 
cells), and how they join at the synapse, thus making possible the trans- 
mission of the nerve impulse. Today we shall study action or behavior, 
some of it not ordinarily conscious, and some of it representing the most 
complicated acts that the human organism can perform. Do not expect 
to be able to answer all of the questions without reading. 



References: See lesson 6. 



1. If you prick your hand slightly, it will be withdrawn involuntarily 
thru reflex action, the control being on the lower level and thru the 
spinal cord. Show how in turn (a) the mid-brain and (b) the cere- 
brum become involved when (a) the prick is severe enough that you 
are led to make a more vigorous response bringing into play other 
parts of the body, and (b) still more severe so that you look at the 
injured spot, consciously try to remove the offending object, and may 
even consider further the question of the possibility of poison from it. 
What are these three levels called and what distinguishes each from 
the other? Is it probable that within the highest level, there are really 
several levels? 

2. Make an effort to find three or four illustrations of action on each of 
these three levels. 

3. Diagram each level in general terms or with the illustrations of exer- 
cise 1 in mind. 

4. Be ready to discuss the following statements: 

a. Responses of the lower level are inherited or unlearned; 

b. Responses of the second level are probably also unlearned, but 
may depend in part, upon learning, e. g. co-ordinated responses; 

c. Responses of the third level have to do with learning and eomplt \ 
movements and include, therefore, the most automatic habits as 
well as the most elaborate reasoning. 



[ 12 ] 



Lesson 8. Cerebral Activity; Review 

In preparing for today's study, go back over the main concepts you 
have been thinking about in the two previous lessons, the nature and 
function of the central nervous system, the neurone and its structure and 
functions, the synapse, and the three levels of action. Bring to class 
any questions about matters that are not clear, as they will prove real 
stumbling blocks in the future. Today we shall concern ourselves partic- 
ularly with mental life (behavior, consciousness) of the third level. You 
will bring to class to hand in, one diagram under exercise 1 and one dia- 
gram under exercise 2, and on a separate sheet, an answer to question 4. 
The instructor will explain and illustrate 2 before you begin your work, 
that is, in the assignment. 



References: See lesson 6. 



1. Draw a rough diagram of the exterior of the left hemisphere of the 
cerebrum, and locate the two great fissures, and the more certainly 
localized areas as to function, e. g. the visual, the motor, tactile, and 
auditory. A cross section should also be made or at least studied 
noting the thalamus and corpus callosum. R will help you to remem- 
ber these locations if you will run the hand over the side of the skull 
as you study a diagram. (A model will be brought to class.) 

2. Diagram one or more of the following and be able to describe in the 
large the brain action that takes place: 

a. Copying a sentence with a pencil 

b. Sewing a rather difficult stitch by hand 

c. Speaking 

d. Reading a sentence 

e. Playing the piano by note 

3. What are the physiological counterparts of S, R. and R? (Strong, 
p. 228). Do you feel that you understand better, the problems raised 
in Part I, especially in lesson 3-5? 

4. Sit down now and write a paragraph on the topic. "My reactions to 
psychology," just without giving it any thought, writing rapidly the 
things you think and feel about the subject Don't try to be technical 

and do aim to be frank and sine. re. 



[ 13 ] 



CH. III. ORIGINAL NATURE: HEREDITY, INSTINCTS, EMOTIONS 

Before beginning this new topic, take a couple of minutes to note the 
"Statement to Students" at the beginning of this syllabus and to raise 
the questions as to what part, if any, you have been slighting. Has your 
instructor also apparently neglected to bear any part of it in mind? 

Lesson 9. Heredity: Its Laws and Contributions 

In this lesson the purpose will be served if you gain a clear notion 
of the importance of heredity, that stock of original nature with which 
we humans start in life. The two factors, heredity and environment, 
"nature and nurture," are responsible for the vast multitude of responses 
that we make daily. In most cases they are so complicated and the effects 
of heredity and environment are so intertwined that it is hard to dis- 
tinguish them. The practice of trying, however, is excellent, as it leads 
one to appreciate each the more. It might be said in this connection, 
that there was at one time a considerable controversy as to which was 
more important, but this is hardly a valuable question, altho you will 
probably find yourself leaning to one or the other. 

References: Decidedly the best available reference will be Nors- 
worthy and Whitley, ch. 1. Other references are: Pyle, ch. 2, Averill, 
chs. 4-6, while most psychology texts touch upon the problem. 

1. Write out to hand in, a list of say half a dozen physical traits in your- 
self and others, such as brown eyes, red hair, short-fmgercdness, un- 
usual height, etc., and in a parallel column, the ancestor or parent to 
whom this seems to be traceable. 

2. Make a similar table to hand in, trying to be rather more careful of 
your facts, of mental traits, e. g. musical ability, inventiveness, ex- 
cellent memory, etc. 

3. In such common habits as eating, walking, talking, and observing 
things as you pass along the street, can you trace to some extent at 
least, the inherited and the acquired responses? 

4. The hereditary contributions seem to be from three sources, race, s. \ 
and family (or near ancestry). Can you suggest illustrations of each? 
What is the value to a teacher, of the hypothesis, "Given a white l><>y 
of the Hugh Smith family," . . . i. e. can certain conclusions be drawn 
about the child's probable school achievements? 

5. If the father in this case is a well-educated lawyer with a special inter- 
est in social welfare in his community, will these acquisitions affect 
the son's native ability? Why? What is the value of this fact and 
the knowledge of it to the teacher? 

6. It seems to be proved that the line of inheritance is thru the germ 
plasm which is quite distinct from the body plasm ami that the indivi- 
dual's abilities arc determined at the time of the fertilization of the 
ovum. What importance has this fact for the minister, the teacher, the 
social worker, in fact, any leader in society? 

7. What is the difference between blended and alternate inheritance? 
Cite illustrations. Which do you think is probably more important? 

8. Of the two great laws of heredity that of resemblance, and of variation, 
one forms the basis of general psychology and the other of individual 
(differential) psychology. Which must this course largely take up? 
Why is the other very important for the parent and teacher? 

[ 14 ] 



Lesson 10. Instincts and Their Place in Education 

This lesson will introduce you to the general problems of instincts 
and their treatment, so that nature may become nurture to the greatest 
advantage to the individual and the race. As you study, try to keep in 
mind your own experiences and to review your own education in and out 
of school, and also to think of the activities of younger children of your 
acquaintance. This lesson will be continued in the next, but with refer- 
ence to special instincts and the subject will be again taken up in the 
next craarter when learning, or educational psychology, is the major 
problem. 

References: It will be well to read one of the first two or three of 
the following references only, the rest being given to offer opportunity 
to find the list of instincts which is called for in Lesson 13: Pillsbury, 
ch. 10; Norsworthy and Whitley, pp. 21-31; Pvle, ch. 4; Angell, ch. lo; 
James, ch. 25; Thorndike, P. T. ch. 3; Bolton, pp."l40-164; Colvin pp. 33-63. 

1. Do humans have less or more instincts than the lower animals? What 
is the more important difference between them ? Illustrate. 

2. Explain briefly, the origin or source of instincts according to the bio- 
logical law of natural selection? 

3. If a boy is intentionally injured by another, what does he instinctively 
do? If he fails to make this response, what may be the cause? Does 
a soldier instinctively salute his officer? 

4. Make a list of the differences between reflexes, instincts and capacities, 
and find several illustrations of each. Which of these are more 
educablc? Which may be ends as well as means in education? 

5. What are the traits or characteristics common to human instincts? 
What is the significance of each for education? 

6. What are the various methods that may he used in handling ( a ) un- 
desirable and (b) desirable instincts in home and school? What are the 
relative merits of these methods? 

7. List a half dozen instincts which you have exhibited during the last 
twenty-four hours. Which are more like original nature and which 
have been most overlaid with habit? 

8. Begin a list of instincts which are of more or less importance in educa- 
tion, not including the reflexes and not including highly specialised 
and individualized capacities, to be handed in with lesson 13. 

(While psychologists have recently come to the a inclusion that 
such general terms as curiosity, pugnacity, etc.. are really group nanus 
for scores or even hundreds of specialized tendencies, it will be easier 
if we bear this in mind, but follow the general practice of using the 
older terminology) . 



[ 15 ] 



Lesson 11. Some Important Instincts 

The teacher and the parent, as well as others interested in problems 
of social leadership, find themselves confronted constantly with the prob- 
lem of utilizing the tendencies, which we find in children, and this lesson 
serves the purpose of giving you opportunity to find out some of the 
methods of utilizing a few of the most important instincts. The question 
will be taken up again, and you will be given a chance to study some one 
instinct in detail next quarter. In this lesson, do not neglect to find out 
something about each instinct in addition to answering the questions 
asked, so that if you were asked to give a brief description of it you could 
do so. Furthermore, this seems important at this point because it will 
set you thinking about the relation of psychology to your chosen work, 
teaching, and because it will give many suggestions regarding yourself 
and cues as to what to look for and interest yourself in, in psychologizing. 
The instructor will probably want to spend two periods with this lesson 
or to omit some of the exercises. 

References: See Lesson 10. Also Angell, ch. 16; Norsworthy and 
Whitley, chs. 3-5; Averill, chs. 6-18; Colvin, pp. 55-63; Wordsworth, ch. 7. 

1. Take some two or more instincts, e. g. fighting, and indicate carefully, 
the S's and R's of which their appearance is made up. 

2. Can you suggest important uses for the following instincts in the 
school, particularly in the grade of work in which you are interested; 
fighting, collecting, desire of approval, migratory instinct, leadership, 
parental instinct, sex instinct? 

3. In what sense is imitation not an instinct? Note diversity of activities 
included under it, that is, of kinds of imitation. Give illustrations of 
how imitation may be important and valuable and how it may be 
unfortunate in the second grade, the eighth grade? How does imita- 
tion change with age? 

4. How can we use the tendency to physical activity? To mental activity? 
Which is relatively more important in the kindergarten? In the high 
school? What courses in school may be said to be based largely upon 
each? 

5. Is the curiosity of the 3-year-old child, the U-year-old child, the 16- 
year-old child, different in important respects? How? How can the 
elementary school make wider use of this important instinct? 

6 Why and how is rivalry frequently misused in school? What are at 
least two important changes in the modern school in the use of rivalry 
(emulation)? Can you cite good illustrations of use of this instinct.' 

7. Is there a "social" instinct? Is it the instinct of gregariousness or the 
gang instinct? At what stages of education is this most important 
andhow am it be best utilized? cf. 1st, 5th and 10th grades. 

8 Play has been called the most fundamental instinct for education. 
Justify this statement if you believe it, and show two extreme view- 
points regarding play and the school and the desirable middle road. 

9. Speech or language is based upon the instinct of vocalization. How 
is learning to talk a matter largely of imitations.' What are common 
errors that need to be corrected in elementary instruction and how do 
you know they are errors? 

10. Take up at least one subject of the typical primary, or grammar 
grade, or high school course, and show what natural tendencies might 
advantageously be relied upon by the teacher as furnishing motive- 
power. 

[ 16 ] 



Lesson 12. The Emotions, Feelings and Attitudes 

In this lesson you will study a kindred topic to that of the last two 
lessons, namely the emotions. Like the instincts, they are built upon 
the solid foundation of heredity, but they are capable of much develop- 
ment. Attitudes, moods and the higher emotions are probably very largely 
a matter of education and training (environment). Some one has said 
that the feelings (emotions) are the "mainsprings of life." While 
therefore the psychologists have not been able as yet to make exact studies 
of them, for when one tries to study a feeling it disappears from con- 
sciousness, yet it is important to get acquainted with the data available 
on this interesting phase of ourselves. 

References: Norsworthy and Whitley, ch. 5; Pillsbury, ch. 12; Bol- 
ton, ch. 25; Titchener, pp. 471-503. 

1. When one is angry, he may or may not strike the object of his anger, 
but he is certain to feel angry. What seems to be the relation of 
emotion and instinct? Is emotion hereditary? 

2. What is feeling (or affection) according to the psychologist? What is 
its place in emotion? How might you define emotion? 

3. What is meant by calling fear and grief, "primary" emotions and hate 
and disappointment, higher or compound emotions? These latter 
may also be spoken of under such heads as esthetic, intellectual, moral, 
religious, social emotions. Can you illustrate each of these groups? 
Try similarly to define and illustrate attitudes, moods and "sentiments." 

4. Recall some strong emotion which you may have had. How did it 
affect the clarity and accuracy of your thinking, the accuracy and 
effectiveness of your action? Would this hold generally? What of 
attitudes and moods? 

5. An emotion is always attended by much physical and organic activity. 
What are some of these activities in the case of extreme fear or ex- 
treme anger? Is this an important fact for the parent and teacher 
to bear in mind? Why? 

6. Apply the methods of handling instincts (Lesson 10. exercise 0), to two 
emotions, either anger or fear, and either sympathy or reverence, or 
courage or happiness. 

7. Begin a list of emotions, which will be supplemented in the dan dis- 
cussion and will be completed with lesson 13. 



[ 17 ] 



, Lesson 13. Review of Lessons 1-12 

In lesson 5 you saw the advantage of freshening up your informa- 
tion and of checking up on your acquired stock of ideas about psychology. 
This lesson is given at this time to assist you further in the same matters 
as there is a rather definite break in the subject matter at this point. In 
all likelihood the instructor will want to set a written lesson or test over 
this matter, on account of the peculiar advantage such an exercise has in 
giving the teacher a chance to note the nature of the responses of the 
pupils when he tries to give all a fairly uniform situation. Therefore, 
some of the questions will be like exercises 1-3, where the opportunity of 
making the situation uniform for all is greater than in such questions as 
"discuss" or "state." In answering these be entirely self-reliant the first 
time and then check up on the answers by reference to your notes, your 
favorite texts, or your room-mate, and make a score of the number of 
correct answers that you made. Write out and hand in answers to ques- 
tions 5 and 6 on separate sheets. 

1. Psychology is today usually defined either as the study of or 

of A somewhat broader statement of its aim is that it is 

the study of Its general method like that of all natural 

science is , which, when focused on one's self and one's own 

mind, is called 

2. The modern psychologist thinks of all the various mental processes 

as being reducible to stimuli or and to or responses. 

The connections between these are known as Learning may 

therefore be defined as the forming of , teaching as the pro- 
vision of those situations which will secure responses. 

3. The individual both mentally and physically is a result of heredity 

and The former factor is seen clearly in two great groups of 

mental processes, the which usually involve action and the 

which involve more of the feeling. The best method for 

the treatment of the undesirable tendencies is while the 

home and school must provide for wise of the desirable om s. 

4. "What help do you find that you are getting from this course in 
psychology for your own personal life? Can you suggest ways in 
which it could be made more helpful by the instructor? 

5. List the books you have been using rather frequently, in an order to 
preference, stating either the quality you like about each, or giving 
some reason for your preference. 

G. Complete (a) the list of instincts and (b) the list of emotions which 
you began in previous lessons. It might be well to limit yourself some- 
what, say to twenty-five of the most important instincts and twenty 
of the most important emotions. 



[ 18 ] 



CH. IV. ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

Lesson 14. Nature of Attention 

We now turn for three lessons to the related problems of attention 
and interest. You have noticed many times how teachers, parents and 
others insist upon attention in dealing with children and inferiors. It 
must be important, therefore. You have also learned by experience, that 
you learn more easily when attention and interest combine to assist you. 
In this lesson the general nature of the attention processes is treated and 
you will notice that we now turn, as the scientist must sooner or later do, 
to the statement of some of the laws of psychology. 

References: Norsworthy and Whitley, ch. 6; Pillsbury, ch. 6; Colvin 
251-270; Strayer and Norsworthy, ch. 3; Averill, chs. 34, 35; Angell, pp. 80- 
113; Woodworth, ch. 11. 

1. If you have ever watched a baby of a few months, you will have noticed 
his giving attention to various features of his environment and you 
may have noticed an apparent parallel in his general mental develop- 
ment. Is there an instinct of attentiveness? To what sorts of things 
does a little child seem instinctively to attend? Note the motor accom- 
paniments of its attention. Do these persist with the adult? 

2. Familiarize yourself with some discussion of attention so that you 
can illustrate it with some diagram, and explain that diagram, e. g. 
the concentric circles. What is then the concentration of attention? 
Inattention? Dispersed attention? 

3. Remembering, therefore, that the psychologist believes tin- mind, is 
always attentive or that attention is a feature of all conscious acts, 
what is a good definition of attention, or, better still, a brief descrip- 
tion of attention that will take the place of a definition ? Is there one 
essential characteristic of attention? 

4. Be able to define the following terms which represent aspects of the 
attentive process; duration (rhythm) of attention, span or range of 
attention, division of attention, distraction of attention. 



[ 19 3 



Lesson 15. Nature of Attention (Continued) 

As this lesson is a continuation of lesson 14, see the introductory state- 
ment to that lesson. Before writing up the experiments it will be impera- 
tive to look up the introductory statement about "Experiment Reports," 
and it will be equally important at this point to sketch again the "State- 
ment to the Student." 

References: See lesson 14. 

1. Be careful to perform the following experiments rigidly so that your 
results will be accurate. This means keeping the directions listed in 
"Experiment Reports" before you, starting early and recording results 
and introspections at once. You are to hand in one experiment. 

a. Rhythm (duration) of attention — Let one member of the pair 
listen attentively to the sound of a faintly ticking watch and respond 
to the fact of the loss of the sound of indicating it by the dropping 
of the pencil held in the hand and holding it upright when the sound 
is heard. Let the other member record in the listener's notebook a 

scries of dots at as nearly a uniform rate as follows 

the time of the periods when heard and not heard respectively. Study 
and interpret the results. 

b. Span or range of attention — Let E tap with a pencil an object 
which will give a sound, making ten trials, the number of taps varying 
in different trials from 3 to 12 but not in regular order, the time 
interval being the briefest possible, yet which is necessary to dis- 
tinguish the sounds. Let O estimate the number, not counting them, 
and let E keep the record. Is it hard to keep from counting? Is this 
partly a test of memory as well as the span of attention? 

c. Division of attention — Let E hold a watch with a second hand 
and let O in five successive trials, perform the two-fold task of counting 
as rapidly as possible and of writing the Arabic numerals. 1. 2. .'$. etc, 
of the same scries as fast aspossible. He must not allow his writ- 
ing to slow down the counting so that he does not keep ahead. Record 
introspections, c. g., inhibitions, etc. Note what gam, if any. comes 
with practice and in the results record scores in both ways of count- 
ing. What conclusions do you draw from the test, as to one's ability 
to attend to two things at once? Cf. other experiences. 

d. Distraction of attention— Select a passage of some fifteen or 
twenty lines of printed matter and pick out the a's or pick out some 
combinations of letters, such as er and count the Dumber. Immediately 
after the task record introspections of your consciousness during the 
act of counting and indicate irrelevant impressions, memor 
thoughts, etc. What conclusions do you draw? 

2. State laws regarding each of the terms listed in question I of less 
14, and with which you have experimented in question 1 of this lesson. 
If you draw upon some author give him credit, but you can as will 
state them yourself, perhaps. There is probably a general law ol 
attention or law of selection, see questions 2 and ,\ of lesson 1 I. Can 
you state this? There are undoubtedly a -toil many other laws re- 
garding attention and you may if you desire, state any of those. A 
good method would be as follows: Law of repetition — The repetition 
of any experience tends to increase its clearness up to a certain point 



[ 20 ] 



Lesson 16. Attention and Interest; Practical Applications 

In the last two lessons, by reading and experiments, you aimed to 
find out some of the more important characteristics of the mental pro- 
cesses called attention. It would be unsatisfactory to try to go on with 
this lesson unless you outlined or summarized these lessons. 

In this lesson we shall study the practical bearings of attention upon 
your work as a student and as a prospective teacher. Just as therefore, 
in the last lesson, you gave attention (note how quite by accident I used 
the word, but nevertheless used it properly) to the laws of attention, 
today you will be asked naturally to begin to form practical conclusions 
in the way of maxims or rules of practice. 

References: See lesson 14. 

1. Psychologists are fairly well agreed that there are three different types 
of attention, but they are not agreed upon the names. Find out what 
you can about these and consider the desirability of the following 
names: primary ( or spontaneous), secondary (or derived), and de- 
rived primary (or sustained). Be able to illustrate each from your 
own recent experiences. 

2. Among the qualities of stimuli that attract attention are clearness, 
intensity, novelty, pleasurcableness and expectedness. Which of tl. s 
are more likely to be connected with each of the three types of atten- 
tion? Which should a teacher always seek, in situations which she 
presents to the pupil? Which should she use sparingly? Which have 
to do with the importance of slating the aim of the lesson? Which 
wear out with excessive use? Which makes a rough drawing often 
preferable to a finished map? (Adopted from Thomdike. P. T., 
p. 107). 

3. Does interest depend upon knowledge? Do attention and in I 
always go together? What is interest? When, therefore, is a thing 
interesting? Can all school matters he made interesting? If not in- 
trinsically interesting, what can he done to secure ink i 

4. Interests arc in immediate or remote ends. Which are more appeal- 
ing to little children? Why? What then must the teacher do? Can 
you cite misuse of this fact in your school experience .' 

5. Try to analyze your classroom experience, in the elementary school, 
high school, and normal school, and list the things that have been the 
occasion of your lagging of interest and attention. Prepare to hand in 
under the caption or title. "Why my attention lags in class 

6. Slate at least three or four very practical maxims for the teacher that 
STOW out of the exercises above. 



[ 21 1 



CH. V. SENSE-PERCEPTION 

Lesson 17. Sensation: Illustration of Touch Sensations 

Psychologists who have had the consciousness rather than the be- 
havior point of view have usually given much stress to this subject, be- 
cause they regarded sensations as the elements out of which the other 
higher processes are made. You will readily see that the field is tempting 
to the specialist and one is readily led off into problems of physiological 
psychology. It will be sufficient for you as a prospective teacher if you 
grasp at this time, the notions of the variety and richness of sensory 
experience, and its general nature and significance. You may if you like, 
look into the physiology of the eye and ear and other sense-organs. There 
are no physical stuctures more complex and wonderful except the 
brain itself. 

References: Pillsbury, ch. 4; Strong, chs. 35-37; Colvin, ch. 4; Nors- 
worthy and Whitley, ch. 7; Pyle ch. 3; Woodworm, ch. 10. It would be 
well not to read any of these chapters in detail but only such parts as 
bear on the questions; one text will probably not suffice. 

1. As you sit at the desk now, in what ways is your nervous system being 
affected (stimulated) by the outside world, or internally, e. g. by the 
page before you, perhaps by a toothache, by noise or talking, etc. 
Note the variety of situations and of sense-organs involved. 

2. Study the terms sensation and perception and find the difference. What 
do some writers mean by the terms pure sensation, elementary sensa- 
tion, simple sensation? Justify the title sense-perecplion at the haul- 
ing of this chapter? Arrange the following in a series, noting which 
you think at one extremity, are more like illustrations of "pure"' sensa- 
tion and at the other, complex perceptions; sight of friend, baby's 
feelings when burned, sound of tuning-fork, familiar selection on vic- 
trola. Give other illustrations of difference but likeness of the two 
terms. 

3. Touch (popularly mis-named "feeling") is a complex of at least four 
senses, pressure, warmth, cold and pain. Perform and write up care- 
fully the following experiment: 

Measure off on the hack of the left hand (or right hand if you are 
naturally left handed), a square approximately a square inch, ami 
divide same into four fairly equal squares. Make a similar plot on 
paper, preferably four limes as large, thai is two inches on the side. 
(Practice each of the four parts of the experiment briefly on some 
other part of the hand lest you fatigue the area marked off). 

1. Take a fairly well sharpened lead pencil or nail and explore 
the area systematically beginning on one side and running on 
parallel lines, noting cold spots and marking same in the proper 
place on the diagram. 

2. Similarly, take a healed pencil or similar object and explore 
for warmth spols (If no other means avails, place pencil from 
time to [hvs against lamp bulb). As before, note spots hut with a 
different symbol 

3. Take a stiff hair or bristle or pin and explore for pain spots, 
and mark with a third kind of mark. 

4. Take a sharp pencil, sharpened tooth-pick or very still 
bristle and explore especially at roots of hairs for pressure spots 
and note on diagram. 

In your write-up. cover any other important details, 

especially in the nature of introspections, hut do not neglect to 
answer the following questions: 

a. Which of these four kinds of sensations is easiest to locate? 
Arrange the four in an order of clearness of sensation, h. Did you 
notice any other skin responses that might be taken for sensations? 
Name them. e. What is the value to man of these sensations? 
Is their value more to civilized man today or savage man in by- 
gone ages? To the little child or adult, relatively? d. What gen- 
eral notions do you draw from thus experiment that change your 

[ 22 ] 



Lesson 18. Visual, Auditory and Other Sensations 

Today we are to study other types of sensations. A part of the class- 
work will be given to working out the details of the talbe. There are 
numerous interesting experiments which you will find suggested to you, 
for example in Strong, Pyle, Pillsbury, and Seashore, and which you may 
care to try. 

References: See lesson 17. 

1. Visual sensations are of two kinds, color (chromatic) and brightness 
(achromatic). Find out the different stimuli of each, the number of 
qualities and be able to draw and explain the color pyramid (see Pills- 
bury, Angell or Titchcner, etc.). 

2. Explain and be able to illustrate and note practical implications for 
any of the following features of visual sensations: negative and posi- 
tive after-images, complementary colors, visual contrast, adaptation. 

3. Given the situation "some one holds a color before your eyes and asks 
you to name it," describe the complete details of your response in- 
cluding both the reception of the stimulus and the answer by naming 
the color. Write this out to hand in. 

4. Auditory sensations are likewise of two kinds, tone and noise. Find 
out the difference in stimuli and variety of qualities of each. What 
seems to be the best or most acceptable theory, explaining auditory 
sensations? 

5. Find out something about the following sensations and be able to 
illustrate them or give a simple experiment for locating them: olfac- 
tory (smell), gustatory (taste), static, kinesthetic organic. Do you 
find other names of sensations suggested .' 

C. Which of the sensations seem to develop first in the little child? Which 
later? Which two arc most used in education? Are we tending bo 
stress others in education today, c. g. kinesthetic? 

7. List sense defects which are likely to be a serious handicap to the 
child in school? Which of these arc curable, remediable, at least by 
artificial means, which neither remediable or curable? 



[ 23 ] 



Lesson 19. Perception 

You saw that sensations are primary or elementary experiences, some- 
what as are feelings, instincts and reflexes. "We seem as adults, seldom, 
if ever, to have such simple experiences, as they occur in connection with 
each other or with still other experiences. The most natural and common 
complex experiences with which sensations are allied or of which they 
form a part, are perhaps perceptions (percepts). While this following 
mathematical proportion is not exact and must not be taken too literally, 
note its meaning — Sensations: perception:: reflex: instinct:: feeling: 
emotion. 

References: Pillsbury, ch. 7; Norsworthy and Whitley, ch. 7; Colvin. 
ch. 6; Strong, ch. 37; Woodworth, ch. 17. 

1. What is apparently sensation and what perception in the following 
experiences: seeing a horse, hearing an automobile, tasting an orange? 
How many and what sensations might have gone together or have 
fused to give you your present percept of apple? What else enters in? 
Can you judge from these questions how to full-fledged mature percept 
is probably formed, so that you habitually recognize an object when 
it is presented to your attention? 

2. Errors in perception are commonly known as illusions. Note what 
is the cause of the illusion in the illustration below: 

a. Proofreader's illusion — Pcyshology, if read rapidly in a sent- 
ence, would probably be read psychology. Why? Did you so read it? 

b. Artistotle's illusion — Cross two fingers, placing a marble or 
pencil between them, so that it touches what otherwise would be 
opposite sides of the fingers. How many objects do you notice? 

c. Muller-Lyer illusion — Consult some text (e. g. Pillsbury) . 

d. Try to explain other illusions, e. g. hearing a burglar when 
alone, seeing a ghost, thinking the wrong train is moving, etc. 

3. Reading, one of the most if not the most important school ex e rcise , in- 
volves perception very largely (see Pillsbury. pp. 176-180). Watch 
the eyes of some one reading the lines of this page and record the num- 
ber of fixations made per line? Pillsbury notes three kinds of read- 
ing, by letter, by word and by idea; be able to discuss these and nut. 
relative importance. Do illusions enter definitely into the work of 
teaching, e. g. spelling, reading, etc.? 

4. In concluding this study of sense-perception, it would be well to write 
out an outline or a brief summary of the whole discussion. Add some 

statement of the importance of perception in education. 



[ 24 ] 



CH. VI. IMAGINATION, MEMORY, ASSOCIATION 

Lesson 20. Imagery and Imagination 

As we turn from sensation and perception to imagination we are 
turning from a study of present experiences to past (or possible future) 
experiences. Impressions made upon the mind by the outside world 
remain in consciousness as images; they affect our behavior markedly 
even after the experience is long past. The "consciousness" psychologist 
is inclined to class images with sensations and feelings as making up the 
elements of all other higher mental processes. We are concerned with 
getting a clear idea of these processes and their significance for memory 
and thought in particular. Images are the stuff out of which dreams 
and hallucinations are made largely. This is a very interesting by-path 
that some one may want to follow for a little way at least. 

References: Strayer and Norsworthy, ch. 6; Colvin and Bagley, ch. 
13; James, ch. 19; Colvin, chs. 7, 8; Norsworthy and Whitlev, ch. 9; 
Angell, pp. 196-206, 214-221 ; Woodworth, ch. 19. " 

1. Write out to hand in under the title, "My Mental Imagery," the answers 
to the questions following, in sufficient detail that when cold one can 
get a good picture of your mental imagery: 

A. Visual Imagery 
Think of your breakfast or dinner table, as you sat down to it; call 
up the appearance of the table, the dishes, the food on it, the persons 
present, etc. Then answer these questions: 

1. Are the outlines of the objects distinct and sharp? 

2. Are the colors bright and natural? 

3. Where does the image seem to be situated? In the head? Be- 
fore the eyes? At a distance? 

4. How does the size of the image compare with the actual size 
of the scene? 

B. Kinds of Imagery 

5. Can you call to mind better, the tare or voice of a friend? 

6. When "violin" is suggested, do you first think of appearance 
of the instrument or the sounds made when played? 

7. Can you call to mind clearly, the following: (a) sight of natural 
scenery, (b) sound of musie. (e) taste of fruit, (d) moving of 
a boat or hammock or swing, (e) odor of a rose, (f) strain of 
lifting some heavy object? 

8. What kinds of images are suggested to your mind by the words, 
(a) dog, (b) railroad, (c) write, (d) pull, (e) storm, (f) infinity? 

C. Conclusions 
Write out a brief summary of the kind of images you seem to 
have. Arc they largely visual or largely of some other kind? Do you 
seem to be strong in imagery or not? 

2. What is an image? cf. to percept? What is imagination? 

3. Distinguish between concrete and verbal imagery. What type is the 
little child more apt to have? The uneducated adult' The scientist? 
Are some studies likely to call for one type and others the other? 

4. Imagery is usually classed as reproductive and productive (or crea- 
tive). Is the work of the inventor likely to demand one more than 
the other? Of the teacher? Of the young student? Of the advanced 
and older student in a subject? What bearing has productive im- 
agination on the world's progress? 

5. What are the general traits of the imagination of the little child' 
What is the import of these for teacher and parent? 

6. What definite educational principles have you discovered or thought 
out in this lesson ? 

[ 25 ] 



Lesson 21. Memory and Its Different Phases 

Memories or memory processes are very closely allied to imagery 
and imagination. We probably remember largely in terms of images 
whether we are aware of it or not, that is, images are the materials out 
of which memories are made. We might recall and add to a group of 
members of a proportion which was brought to your attention in a 
previous lesson, concerning which no claim is made for accuracy but 
rather for suggestiveness. We would then have — reflex: instinct:: feeling: 
emotion:: sensation: perception:: image: memory. It is doubtful if many 
topics are more fruitful or practical to the student than this; therefore, 
for the sake of your future success as a teacher, in instructing others to 
use correct habits of memorizing, but also for your own economy of time 
and your own efficiency, you will do well to study this and the three suc- 
ceeding chapters with unusual care and thotfulness. 

References: Woodworth, ch. 14; Pillsbury, ch. 8; Pylc, ch. 7; Nors- 
worthy and Whitley, ch. 8; in each case study parts related to the 
questions. 

1. Would you say that you have a good memory or a poor memory? 
How does it compare with some one's else, that is do you know some 
fellow student who seems to have a much better memory? Can you 
account for this? You will want to study two matters in this and 
succeeding lessons, (a) the complexity of the memory process (so 
that your memory may be good in one line and poor in another), and 
(b) the problem in what ways you can and cannot improve your 
memory. 

2. Reviewing your study of imagination, which type of imagination would 
you say is practically identical with memory? How. in general, d 
memory differ from imagination? From sense-perception? Illustrate 
your answers by concrete experiences as far as possible. Define 
memory. 

3. The psychologist finds four overlapping, but different processes in- 
volved in memory; learning (or memorizing), retention, recall, and 
recognition. Familiarize yourself with the meaning of these terms 
and find an out-of-school and an in-school experience, each illustrating 
these four phases. Note also how sometimes, you have the experience 
of one of the processes failing to function when others do, for example. 
recognition without recall. 

4. Is forgetting natural? Is it entirely disadvantageous? Why? What 
have psychologists found out about the rate of forgetting? Does this 
agree with your experience? (This is the first lime that you conn 
upon the use of graphing in psychology hut you will want to use this 
from time to time in the future. Try. therefore, to understand what 
the curve of forgetting means, and to In able to draw and explain it). 

5. The instructor will give a kst with numbers, letters, Donsens 
syllables, or unrelated words to find out the individual differences 
and to measure the memory span of each member of the class during 
the class period. Find out what is meant by the term, something 
its importance at least in diagnosing the probable school achievement 
of children and also hud out something of the differences between 
children and adults in this regard. Apply this principle o( difference 
of child and adult to memory in general and note that the current 
popular view about children's memories, as many popular views aboul 
psychological matters, is incorrect. 

[ 26 ] 



Lesson 22. Types of or Kinds of Memory 

In this lesson we shall pursue further the study of the nature of 
memory. It would be well first to clear up any problems or difficulties 
with the preceding lesson as far as possible. The first question is intended 
to be answered after you have done this. Many interesting problems 
raised here will be answered largely in the next quarter's work when we 
shall connect up the general problems of psychology with learning, and 
when we shall more definitely keep in mind the bearing of psychology 
upon school work. 

References: See lesson 21. 

1. Fill in the incomplete statements below, first without the help of any 
fellow-student, or any other help. Then check your answers and 
see how far you are correct. 

Memories are dependent to a large degree upon just as 

depend upon sensations. While children appear to learn 

than adults, this is due to their There are 

at least four processes in, or phases of, memory, namely, 

, and Forgetting is as natural 

a process as remembering, and the curve of forgetting drops 

at first and then later on. 

2. In the last lesson you learned something about the term memory span 
and you also found your own span in relation to that of the class 
and of adults and children in general. This typo of memory is known 
as primary memory. What is the psychologist's explanation of pri- 
mary memory? Would secondary memory be illustrated by the fact 
that you might perhaps remember one or more of these combinations 
today? Is cramming related to primary memory? When is cram- 
ming not wholly an unmitigated evil. e. g. with the student, the 
teacher, the lawyer, the minister? 

3. Distinguish between two other kinds of memory, namely, rote and 
logical (or associative) memory. Which of these is natural to the 
child and distasteful to the average adult? Why? Which requires 
forming new bonds and which uses old bonds? Which, therefore, 
is more economical? 

4. The instructor will give a brief test in logical memory and the results 
can be measured alongside those of the memory span which, while 
a test of primary memory, is likewise a test of rote memory, is it not? 
In other words, you will be able to tell something about your status 
in regard to having a good memory or a poor memory if you rank 
high in both, or low in both, or medium in both. You may rank 
high in one and low in the other. What would this mean? Should 
a teacher rank high preferably, in rote or logical memory? A mail 
clerk or carrier? A telephone operator? A salesman? 

5. The instructor will also give a test to show what the factors are in 
associative memory. The experiment will prove very interesting and 
will give you an insight into the way you remember when you do 
remember, that is, what are the causes of retaining, recalling, and 
recognizing, (lest adapted from Strong, Lessons 17-18). 



[ 27 ] 



Lesson 23. Association; the Laws (Factors) in Association 

The term association was once regarded by psychologists as offering 
the solution of most problems of psychology, and as being a fundamental 
principle of mental life very much as is the law of gravitation in the 
physical world. Today we are inclined to look upon association as being 
a phase of all consciousness (or behavior) very much as is attention, 
and of its relationship as being closer to imagination and memory than 
to other mental processes. The newer view also considers the term as a 
practical equivalent of the term bond so that today we are really raising 
the question that is phrased by Professor Strong, as follows: "What are 
the factors that affect the strength of the bond?" Bonds, connections, 
and associations, there must be, or situations wiuld not call out the same 
or similar responses. One can scarcely imagine what sort of mental life 
if any, we could have under those circumstances. 

References: Strong, ch. 18; Colvin, ch. 10; Pillsburv, pp. 136-145; 
Thorndike, E. P., pp. 238-250; Angell, pp. 206-21 1; Woodworth, ch. 15. 

1. If I suggest to you the word "apple," and you immediately think of or 
associate with it the word "tree," you no doubt do so because you 
have associated them together some time in the past. Otherwise, some 
other response would have been made. Note similarly the response 
called up by "2 times 2," "the capital of Virginia," "discovery of 
America," or "289 R" (which latter is the telephone number of the 
X family). What then, is association? How docs the term differ 
in meaning from the term bond? Do associations exist in rote learn- 
ing or memory, as well as in logical? Look back to your list of situa- 
tions and responses in Lesson 5, and note the associations that account 
for the responses in a number of cases. 

2. Returning to the experiment in exercise 5, lesson 22, study carefully 
each of the responses, noting the factor that caused your answer to 
be correct or incorrect. Familiarize yourself with Professor Strong's 
discussion and try to bring to class at least one good illustration of 
each of these factors out of your recent experience, 

3. Which of these factors are of gnat importance in the work of tin- 
school? Which of second-rate importance, and which of very doubt- 
ful value? Which are greatly neglected in current school practice.' 
Which should you heed very much more than you have been doing 
for the improvement of results and economy of time in your study .' 

4. Write and bring to class nol more than a page of this note-book paper 
(nor less than a half page) of unlechnieal discussion of the terms, im- 
agination, memory ami association, to show that you have a clear 
notion of these concepts and their relatedness. What may W said 
to be the general law of association (see indexes of various texts or 
Thorndike. P. T., pp. 12-3); cf. the notion of apperception? 



[ 28 1 



Lesson 24. Review of Memory and Association; Practical Applications 

This lesson, like the last question of the previous lesson, aims to assist 
you in summing up and clinching the main ideas of the last four lessons. 
It also aims to help you to fix certain very practical maxims of memoriz- 
ing. It is probable that the instructor will want to supplement this 
review with a written lesson at the next period, this to act as a means to 
a review of the work beginning with lesson 14. 

References: Colvirt, ch. 11; Strayer and Norsworthv, ch. 5; Pillsburv. 
pp. 191-213; Freeman, pp. 193-204. See also lessons 20,"21, 23. 

1. Find out what you can about the experimental findings of psychologists 
regarding the effects of sex and of age upon memory. In individual 
persons, would the law of variation outweigh these factors, e. g. would 

some boys be likely to excel some girls in ? At what age 

are children likely to enjoy verbatim memory work? 

2. You have found the question of a "good memory" resolving itself 
into the matter of (a) natural retentiveness which probably cannot be 
affected by education any more than the color of one's eyes, and (b) 
improved methods or habits of memorizing. What have been found 
to be the secrets of this improvement? (See Strayer and Norsworthv. 
or Pillsbury). 

3. What are the advantages or values in memory systems which you 
frequently see advertised in the magazines? Of mnemonic or mechani- 
cal methods of memorizing? Illustrate. What pitfalls lie in both? 
And what is after all, the best single By stem? 

4. Going back over the last four lessons, make a list <>f definite faets 
that have been rather well established by scientific investigation in 

the field of memory. This is a field in which much work has Inert 
done that really bears upon formal or informal education. Couch your 
statements briefly and see if they do not stand as laws ( ,f memcry. 
(Cf. lesson 15, I \< rcise 2). 

5. If you were to be given the task of learning a poem <>f twenty fines 

or a prose selection of similar length, what are the most valuable 
rules and maxims that you could use to make your memorizing effec- 
tive? You may he able to build these- rules in a better order, perhaps 
around some such cue-words as the following: meaning, recall, 
repetition, distribution, wholes, association, threshold. Which of these 
rules would not hold as well of learning history, mathematics, home 
economics, or psychology? Which do you need to 1m ar in mind SO 
make your work more efficient? 



r 29 ] 



CH. VII. REASONING AND THE PROCESSES INVOLVED 

IN REASONING 

Lesson 25. General Nature of Reasoning 

Some one has said, "Animals never reason and man seldom." How- 
ever, simpler forms of thinking and the exercise of the various mental 
processes involved in thinking are of frequent occurrence, even if the 
more elaborate problem-solving is largely left to a few individuals. 

You will find this and the succeeding chapter harder than usual 
unless you check up your readings with your own experiences as you 
have been asked always to do. There has comparatively little been done 
in experimenting with the reasoning process as compared with memory 
and, therefore, introspection is the more important. The best book on 
the subject and one that you will want some time to have a mastery of. 
is Dewey's "How We Think;" this book is largely an analytic study rather 
than experimental, but it has influenced all later writers on psychology 
and education decidedly. 

References: Strayer and Norsworlhy. ch. 7; Woodworth, ch. 18; 
Norsworthy and Whitley, ch. 10; Pillsburv, ch. 9; James, eh. 22; Freeman, 
ch. 11; Colvin, chs. 20-22. Dewey's "How We Think" is referred to in 
connection with some of the exercises. 

1. What are some of the different uses that people make of the term 
thinking? Arc some of them incorrect? Does it seem to bear a dost 
relation to association? What is the distinct characteristic, if any, in 
reasoning? When and why do humans reason? Do animals reason? 

2. Study the illustrations of thinking (reasoning) in Dewey's H. W. T.. 
ch. 0, tracing out tin five steps in his illustrations. Then try to write 
out to hand in, some fairly recent i Kperience <>t your own in think- 
ing, noting in the write-up the steps of Dewey. Could one of these 
steps be omitted in some bits of reasoning and the conclusions he 
valid? What is meant hy reasoning a thing through? Do we of tin 
stop short of the end? What is meant hy the statement that "it takes 
time to think?" Is this principle Frequently violated hy teachers? 

3. How can inductive and deductive thinking he distinguished ? Which is 
the more natural with children? Which with an adult who is think- 
ing regarding familiar lines of experience, e. g. his vocation? Do 
both of these types lake place in your illustration above? Cff. gram- 
mar, nature study, home economics, algebra, history, this course in 
psychology? Can you in each case, suggest how a better organiza- 
tion of the course would require more variety of use of these two 
types? Or a change in emphasis from one to the other? 

4. Before you leave this matter, write- out a brief summary of this dis- 
cussion "in which is included: thinking, reasoning, the five steps, induc- 
tion and deduction. Are you yourself, addicted too much to the habit 
of accepting the conclusions of others as your own, without thinking 
them out, or without, when possible, arriving at these conclusions 
yourself? 



[ 30 ] 



Lesson 26. Processes Involved in Reasoning; Practical Applications 

Just as emotions are inconceivable without feeling and percepts with- 
out sensations, so reasoning must be thought of as a complex of many 
processes including concepts, judgments and inferences. It becomes the 
whole business of logic, a sister science of psychology, to deal with the 
results of reasoning, the statements and arguments such as we find in 
texts and other books, and to establish norms by which to judge the cor- 
rectness and validity of such arguments. In this lesson we are to see on 
the other hand, how these various processes dovetail into one another and 
to draw therefrom a list of valuable suggestions for our own thinking 
and for our training of others to think. Do not spend too much time on 
exercises 1 and 2, but save some for 3. 

References: See lesson 25. 

1. When you think of, have an idea of, say a "horse" or horses in general, 
without at the time, any sensory experience (percept), this experi- 
ence or process is known as a concept, or meaning. You will remem- 
ber that a sensation became a percept when some meaning was 
attached to the object, so now the concept represents this meaning, 
come so fully into its own, that it can replace the object itself in our 
thinking. Does this concept of horse carry with it an image of some 
one horse or horse-ness in general? Is it necessary for it to do so? 
When you think the square of "x plus y," do you have an image or 
do you not? Briefly, what is a concept and the practice or process of 
conception? Note how this process is a tremendous time-saving 
device which probably animals have in a very small degree and that 
our concepts not only grow in our own experience (ripen and develop), 
but also in the racial experience? (What are good references on the 
last two points?) 

2. Judgment and inference are very closely related processes frequently 
defined quite differently by different writers, and with conception form 
the stages in the thought processes as a whole. 

a. It is probably safe to say that the judgment represents the inter- 
preting of a new experience in terms of the old, a judging. If I come 
to the conclusion that "psychology is a difficult study," I link two 
notions (ideas, concepts) together and I interpret my experience in 
this course as against that in other courses 1 have taken. What judg- 
ments have you made today or recently, that would illustrate the 
definition and statements above? 

b. Of inference, we learned something in exercise 3 in lesson 25, 
where we saw that reasoning which carries us through a situation 
demanding solution of a problem of any difficulty calls for the organi- 
zation of knowledge with some care in order that the solution may be 
correct, that is, based on the evidence. Inferences are prohahly there- 
fore, extended and elaborate judgments just as these are developed 
concepts. What is inference? ('.an you also show the close relation 
of these three processes by noting how a concept may develop thru 
judgment and inference? 

c. Now go hack to Dewey, H. W. T.. pp. S2-S3. and note the con- 
cepts, judgments and inferences, using the definitions given above. 
The instructor will help clear flu mailer up in class. 

3. Do not memorize the following general maxims about thinking in 
relation to school work hut think them over carefully, try to illustrate 
them, and to apply them to your own work as a student and pros- 
pective teacher (if* Colvin, ch. 22; Strayer and Nors worthy, eh. 7). 

i. Abstract thought (reasoning) is a capacity or ability that is pos- 
sessed in varying degrees and in some persons to a \ery small 
degree. 

ii. Reasoning demands data sufficient to solve the problem (if the 
pupil does not possess the facts, they must be gotten from texts. 
from the teacher, from observation or other legitimate sources). 

iii. Reasoning and the rational life require as attitudes, open-minded- 
ness, self-criticism and originality. 

iv. Training is essential at each step in the thinking process, in 
defining the problem, in analysing it into its different elements, in 
evaluating the tentative solutions, and in verifying the accepted 
answer. 

[ 31 ] 



CH. VIII. WILL AND CHARACTER 

Lesson 27. Will, Voluntary Action, Character, Moral Training 

There was a time when psychologists had a conception very much 
like the popular one of today that the will was a separate faculty of the 
mind which acted as a sort of commanding general of the other faculties 
or processes. Today we conceive willing or volition as being a counter- 
part of attention and characterizing our mental life when action follows 
along the lines of our choices, ideas, ideals and intentions. Our character 
or moral life is a complex of these ideals and habits that we more or less 
consciously develop. 

References: Pillsbury, pp, 284-9, 303-313; Straver and Newsworthy, 
ch. 11; Norsworthy and Whitley, ch. 13; Angcll, ch. 22; Averill, eh. 39; 
Thorndike, E. P., pp. 276-284, 293-6; Dewey, M. P. E.; Woodworth, ch. 20. 

1. Some of our acts are planned more or less and others not. What is 
the actual difference? Has this anything to do with will? Look up 
the hypothetical experience in Lesson 3 and note the place of willing 
there. What willed or voluntary action has characterized your be- 
havior today? What do you understand by the psychologist's state- 
ment that the will is "the whole mind active?" (Angell. p. 4.°5). Try 
to state as simply as possible what you regard as the best definition 
of the term will or volition. 

2. Note the meaning of the following terms: desire, choice, wish, decision, 
conflict, intention, determination, effort. Can you suggest other terms 
that have to do with willing? Could you arrange these in a series 
according to degree? Degree of what? 

3. It has been slated that "What hold attention determines action" 
(James, p. 448). Illustrate this. Docs this hold of the inattentive 
child in school? Does emotion enter in to determine will or choice? 
Does habit? Try to take some experience where you have made an 
important decision and note the presence of these three factors and 
others that may be present? Is will more characterized by suppres- 
sing or by expressing one's self? Does your answer g xilh the 
popular notion? 

4. What is meant by character.' In how far is it a question of habits 
and ideals? What does it mean to have an impulsive will? an 
obstructed will? a healthy will? i. e. while Hum phrases are now un- 
acceptable, what is the idea behind each and how does it conned 
with character? 

5. What is will training? (see Angell and Pillsbury). Which is more 
likely to further character training or the development of the will, 

(a) moral instruction in wluit constitutes good citizenship or (b) 
participation in student government? Why? What is the weak: ss 
of moral instruction thai is. teaching precepts, or "preaching" in 
school? Would you rule it out? Why is the teacher's example' fed- 
lowed and her precepts ignored? 

6. Bearing in mind thai the modern view is that the little child when 
he comes to school is non-moral, what suggestions have you to make- 
to show that Dewey is right in saying that there are three sources of 
moral education or development in the school, the studies (curri- 
culum), the methods used by the teacher, and the school life itself? 
What arc three or four of the most important rules or maxims 
the teacher to hold in mind as summing up the practical aspects of 
will training or moral education? 

[ 32 ] 



CH. IX. GENERAL PROBLEMS: RELATEDNESS OF FUNCTIONS, 
SELF, MENTAL DEVELOPMENT 

Lesson 28. Interrelations of Mental Functions: Personality, Self 
You will recall that at the beginning of the course you were told 
that there was an older and false view of mind, namely that it was com- 
posed of a few rigid and separate faculties. On the other hand we now 
conceive it to be in reality a unit, despite the millions of responses that 
we perhaps daily make, like a great machine in respect to behavior but 
frequently and usually conscious of its behavior. While therefore we 
continue to use much the same terminology as the older view, e. g., 
memory, emotions, and so forth, we do this to help in analyzing this com- 
plex mechanism and to indicate how at one time it focuses in one way 
and at another time in another way. Oftentimes the labels do not fit well 
and could be shifted about without much difficulty. Reasoning is like 
will (involving deliberation), like memory (depending upon recall), like 
imagination (using images ordinarily), like association of ideas (and 
almost identical in its simpler forms) , and is indeed based similarly upon 
heredity or natural tendencies. Today we want to think a little while 
about this general relationship of mental functions or processes and of 
its bearing upon two interesting problems: (1) the transfer of training 
from one function to another (see exercise 2), and (2) the meaning of 
the terms self and personality (exercise 3). 

References: Pillsbury, ch. 15; Colvin, pp. 221-217, 211-6; Strayer and 
Nors worthy, ch. 12; Wood worth, ch. 21. 

1. Show, as with reasoning above, how perception connects up with most 
of the various processes or functions discussed this term. Does this 
interrelation seem to hold of attitudes and emotions? Pillsbury 
maintains that there are three general functions of mind, which you 
have noted in connection with your study of situations, bonds and 
responses: receiving impressions, retaining impressions, and selecting 
among these. Arc these three in evidence when I perceive a falling 
star, decide to walk instead of ride, remember the face of a friend 
in a crowd, etc? Can you make oilier analogies than the one in the 
introduction which suggest the unitary nature of mind? Does this 
idea of interrelationship really clear up matters for you compared with 
your notions before studying psychology? Why is it important for 
the teacher? 

2. If functions are so definitely and closely interrelated, when and why. 
if at all, does training carry over from one to another, e. g.. memoriz- 
ing poetry and prose, being accurate in arithmetic and writing and 
keeping accounts and in one's statements about other people? Be 
careful to get the correct view of this matter if you cannot answer the 
above questions with certainty. Can general intelligence be trained 
by training one function? Can it be trained at all? Suggest a half 
dozen very practical rules for the teacher to bear in mind regarding 
transfer of training (see Colvin). 

3. Another problem which arises naturally is that of the nature of per- 
sonality or self. Just as reasoning is the basis of the study of logic M 
the study of tin- self and the not-self is of philosophy. We are con- 
cerned only with getting a general and practical working notion etf 
these. Try to describe some one's personality so that another will 
recognize the person. Do you find yourself using the terms thai you 
have' grown familiar with in this course. e>r other terms? What is 
personality? How does the idea differ fre>m that of self? Do yon 
have a concept of self (your self) very much as you have of tree or 
chair? Is it the result of "thinking together" your various experi- 
ences? (If you care te) read abeuit the' self, see Pillsburv. ch. 16; Angell, 
ch. 23; Janies, ch. 12). 

[ 33 ] 



Lesson 29. Mental Development: Different Stages of 

Although there has not seemed opportunity or time to stress it, you 
have noticed from time to time references to the fact that mental develop- 
ment is a process that begins largely with birth and is never ended until 
death or at least until senility comes on. A new-born babe can see, at 
least it can distinguish light from dark, but it cannot reason; it has sensa- 
tions but not percepts or concepts. Professor James has said that its 
experience must be that of a "big blooming, buzzing confusion." How- 
ever all these traits or functions we have been discussing begin to develop 
early, not appearing full-fledged at one time as many people seem to think. 

Our school work is divided more or less along the lines of child 
development into primary, intermediate and high school phases. At this 
time it is well for you to stop and check up on the traits of children at 
these ages. The instructor will assist you and perhaps arrange one or 
more observations. He may want you to specialize upon one of these 
three phases or stages or to study each less thoroughly. This is an excell- 
ent opportunity for you to try to find out something about other periods 
of child life than that with which the course you have chosen deals be- 
cause at this time you may want to change your course if you find your 
talents, your interests and your probable future success lie in another 
direction. 

References: Norsworthy and Whitley, ch. 15; Cameron, ch. 15; 
Bagley, Educative Process, ch. 12; for the high school period or adolescent 
period, consult Colvin, Introduction to High School Teaching, ch. 2 or 
Monroe, Principles of Secondary Education, ch. 7, or Averill, ch. 45. 
(Kirkpatrick, in his Individual in the Making, has the most detailed 
account of the different stages of child development, if one will read it 
with care and remember that what is reported is largely a matter of more 
or less isolated observations). 

1. There seems to be much evidence that general bodily development and 
mental development go hand in hand. e. g. the changes that occur at 
puberty. Can you cite other illustrations of this fact? Is it likely 
that if a child is retarded physically he will in the majority of cases 
be retarded mentally? In any study of children at different Ages or 
stages, which would be more desirable to know, the chronological 
age (that is, his age in years and months) or his mental age (repre- 
senting his actual mental development) ? How would the latter be 
found ? 

2. Bagley calls the period from (>-S the transition period, that from S-12 
the formative period, and from 12-10 the adolescent period Try to 
suggest better terms or to point out the traits prominent in tii> m 
periods. Then follow up one or more periods with a careful study, 
centering a part or most of your thought in the following questions: 

i. What are some of the better defined objectives (aims) of school 
work at this period? 

ii. What are some of the more important instincts that are prominent 
at this period? 

iii. What types of interests absorb the child's mind, vocational, scien- 
tific, social, play, etc.? 

iv. What are some of the characteristics of his perceptions, imagina- 
tion, reasoning, memory, attention, etc.? 

v. What do you consider as some of the biggest problems of this 
period? Are you still most interested in it? 

[ 34 ] 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



021 102 072 6 



\ 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



II J II II II II Ml 

021 102 072 6 



